What role do women play in community-based natural resource management systems, such as forest conservation or soil fertility practices, that are rooted in traditional ecological knowledge?

1. Key finding

Overall/Women and girls-related
Women are pivotal custodians of traditional agro-ecological knowledge (TAeK, driving climate resilience and agrobiodiversity conservation through practices like seed preservation, food security initiatives, and resource management, despite facing systemic barriers rooted in gendered norms and unequal access to land, water, and decision-making.

2. Short summary

The review highlights the critical role of gender in shaping traditional agro-ecological knowledge (TAeK) across diverse systems. Women play a vital role in subsistence farming, seed preservation, and food conservation, ensuring food security and agrobiodiversity conservation. In contrast, men often handle heavy labor, irrigation, and ethnoveterinary tasks. Regional differences exist; for instance, South Asian women excel in seed preservation, while men dominate infrastructure-related activities. Similarly, women in forestry gather edible and medicinal plants, while men manage tree species for fodder and construction.

Gendered inequities often restrict women’s access to land, seeds, forests, and water, marginalizing their contributions and limiting autonomy. Despite these barriers, women rely on informal networks to share knowledge, sustain TAeK, and address biodiversity loss and climate variability through strategies like soil conservation, crop protection, and wild plant gathering during food scarcity. Gendered divisions of labor in agroforestry, cropping, and home gardening further burden women, limiting their decision-making power while increasing domestic responsibilities. Yet, they remain crucial custodians of TAeK, particularly in seed conservation, medicinal plants, and food preservation. The review emphasises the importance of equitable access to resources to harness women’s knowledge for sustainable, climate-resilient agricultural practices.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Concept: Gendered exploration of TAeK in agri-food systems and traditional agricultural knowledge

Context: No specific region

3.2 Risk of bias - Not assessed

3.3 Publication bias - Not assessed

3.4 Findings 

The review addresses gender as a critical factor influencing traditional agro-ecological knowledge (TAeK) across diverse agroecosystems. It underscores the necessity of exploring gendered differences in TAeK related to production, transformation, and conservation of resources, emphasizing how men’s and women’s daily experiences shape and sustain this knowledge. Women are primarily associated with gathering practices, which are often linked to subsistence farming and fulfilling family needs, whereas men tend to focus on gathering construction and fodder resources in distant locations. Both genders possess TAeK regarding plant characteristics, harvesting periods, and uses for culinary, medicinal, and ethnoveterinary purposes, but their expertise often differs by age, location, and societal roles.

In livestock management, gendered roles vary across regions. In East Africa, women focus on caring for smaller animals and milk processing, whereas men in West Africa are more knowledgeable about livestock. In Europe and Asia, studies highlight women’s involvement in feeding, milking, and administering medication, contrasting with men’s focus on transhumance and ethnoveterinary practices.

Gendered patterns in TAeK are evident in genetic resource conservation, cultivation methods, and small-scale farming. For instance, South Asian women play a significant role in seed collection and preservation, while men are more involved in irrigation and infrastructure. Women’s contributions to food sovereignty are notable in indigenous crop cultivation and home gardening, as observed in South Africa and West Africa, where they ensure food availability and household income.

Forestry-related TAeK also displays gender-based distinctions. In Asia, Africa, and the Americas, women often engage in gathering wild edible plants and medicinal resources, while men’s activities are more oriented toward managing specific tree species and their uses. Such practices contribute to health sovereignty and the sustainable use of forest resources, underscoring the complementary nature of gendered TAeK.

The review also explores gendered disparities in access to land, seeds, forests, and water, highlighting how patriarchal systems and customary laws often privilege men. Women face significant barriers, such as restricted land rights, limited participation in decision-making, and exclusion from seed and water resource management, which curtail their ability to utilize their traditional agro-ecological knowledge (TAeK). Although women often excel in seed conservation and crop management, societal norms and unequal resource control marginalize their contributions, particularly in regions like South Asia and West Africa. These inequities reinforce gender roles, limiting women's autonomy and compounding their workload in agricultural and domestic spheres.

Informal networks among women play a vital role in sustaining TAeK, which is crucial for adapting to climate change and conserving agrobiodiversity. Gendered divisions of labor are evident in agroforestry, cropping, and homegardening systems, where women typically handle tasks like seed conservation, weeding, and home gardeing, while men undertake heavier tasks such as land clearing and pruning. Women are key custodians of knowledge in areas like food conservation, seed preservation, and medicinal plant use, contributing significantly to family sustenance and agroecological resilience. However, sociocultural norms often restrict their roles, with men dominating tasks related to forage conservation, veterinary practices, and heavy labor. These disparities highlight the interplay between gendered labor divisions and knowledge systems, emphasizing the need for equitable resource access to harness the full potential of women’s knowledge in building climate-resilient and sustainable agroecosystems. Women adopt strategies like soil conservation, crop protection, and wild plant gathering to address biodiversity loss and food scarcity. They rely on informal networks and institutions to preserve and transfer knowledge across generations, while men's involvement is limited in some contexts, such as agropastoral systems in Europe 

3.5 Sensitivity analysis - Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words 

1. Key finding

Overall
Perceptions of climate change, adaptation strategies, access to resources, and social networks for effective adaptation are distinctly shaped by gender, with men and women exhibiting differentiated roles, resources, and support systems that influence their adaptive capacities and responses to climate impacts. 

Women and girls-related
Gender roles significantly shape adaptation strategies in agriculture, with men typically engaging in labor-intensive and resource-focused activities, while women prioritize less labor-demanding tasks and household food security, reflecting distinct responsibilities in response to climate challenges. Women face restricted access to productive resources, limiting their adoption of technical climate adaptation strategies and often confining them to managerial roles, while men tend to dominate resource-intensive activities due to cultural norms and differential resource ownership. Women face restricted access to productive resources, limiting their adoption of technical climate adaptation strategies and often confining them to managerial roles, while men tend to dominate resource-intensive activities due to cultural norms and differential resource ownership.

2. Short summary

Research reveals mixed evidence regarding gendered perceptions of climate change. While men and women share similar views, women often report greater concern, especially over specific threats like crop losses and saltwater intrusion. This heightened concern may stem from a more fatalistic outlook on climate, possibly due to limited access to information. Gender roles critically shape these perceptions; for example, women in Uganda focus on issues impacting fuel and water due to their domestic roles, while men emphasize soil fertility and livestock health.

Adaptation strategies also differ by gender. Women, restricted by unequal access to resources, tend to adopt managerial adaptations like crop rotation, while men typically engage in structural changes like flood prevention. Financial and technical adaptations vary; women in Bangladesh rely on savings or loans for small businesses, while men in Ghana often sell assets. The findings emphasize that women often face adaptation barriers due to poverty and limited capital. Gender roles and associated socioeconomic factors distinctly shape climate resilience. Women often rely more on localized, food security-focused social networks, while men access broader, crop-oriented institutional networks, with cultural practices further restricting women’s social connectivity and network access.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Population: Women

Concept: gender disaggregated perception and/or adaptation to cli-mate change in agriculture

Context: No specific region

3.2 Risk of bias - Not assessed

3.3 Publication bias - Not assessed

3.4 Findings 

Evidence on gendered perceptions of climate change is mixed. Some studies suggest men and women share similar views, while others indicate women show slightly higher concern and greater sensitivity to temperature changes. Many studies note that women, often with limited climate information, are more fatalistic about climate change, sometimes viewing it as divine will. In China, women attribute climate change to human actions, whereas in Ghana, Malawi, and Bangladesh, both genders frequently cite deforestation and overpopulation. Female farmers generally express greater concerns over crop losses, reduced productivity, and environmental threats, while men more frequently report flood occurrences, with women focusing on flood impacts and prevention.

Gender roles significantly shape perceptions of climate change, leading men and women to experience and interpret impacts differently. For example, in India, men typically observe effects on activities they manage, like hunting and livestock health, while women are more attuned to changes affecting forest food plants, medicinal plants, and horticulture due to their responsibilities in these areas. In Ghana, women perceive reductions in food production more than men because of their role in securing food supplies. Similarly, in Uganda, women note prolonged droughts, saline water, and wetland changes for fuel cultivation, while men focus on soil fertility decline. These differences suggest that specific gender roles within communities lead to distinct climate change perceptions, even among people living in the same area. Climate change perception among farmers also varies by age, social status, and ethnicity, influencing adaptation behaviors. Older and poorer farmers in India and Mexico are more certain about climate impacts, while concerns about climate change strongly drive adaptation efforts, especially among women.

Some of the climate change adaptation strategies adopted and variation by gender:

Technical adaptation The adoption of improved crop varieties and livestock breeds varies by gender and location, with women favoring fast-maturing crops and men often prioritizing drought-resistant varieties. Gendered differences also affect adoption rates, with women in Bangladesh adopting diverse agriculture more than men, whereas men in Ghana lead in diversification efforts.

Financial adaptation: In response to climate change, men in Ghana and Kenya typically sell assets like livestock to cope with drought, while women rely more on borrowing or savings. Asset sale strategies also vary by climate impact and gender, with male-headed households selling assets during drought and female-headed households amid pest infestations. Women in Bangladesh and Malawi frequently join savings schemes and take loans for small businesses, whereas in India, more men take loans, borrow from neighbors, and use savings for adaptation.

Structural Adaptation: Structural adaptation strategies typically fall to men, such as flood prevention and drainage, while women often adopt water harvesting, pen reinforcement, and fire control measures, sometimes increasing their labor, as seen in Sudan.

Managerial Adaptation: Farmers, regardless of gender, widely adopt managerial adaptation strategies, with variations by gender; women in Tanzania focus on cropping and fertilization, men on conservation and feed improvement, and in Ghana, men prioritize fish farming, while women emphasize seasonal forecasting and post-harvest tech.

Socio-cultural adaptation: Key socio-cultural adaptation strategies include changes in food habits, gender roles, farming systems, and education. In Ghana and Eritrea, women reduced meal size and used wild plants during drought, while in Mali, women took on livestock rearing as men shifted to migration or sharecropping due to climate challenges.

Livelihood Adaptation: Farmers adapt to climate change by diversifying income through non-farm activities, with gender differences in preferred strategies. In Malawi, men leaned towards fisheries and agriculture-related activities, while women engaged more in petty businesses. Additionally, men in some regions pursued exclusive livelihoods like fishing or carpentry, while women focused on small-scale businesses, labor, and forest-based livelihoods.

Migration as adaptation: Migration as an adaptation strategy to climate change is primarily undertaken by men, though women also migrate for non-farm work, with some regions seeing higher female migration. Seasonal migration patterns vary, with men shifting pastures during droughts and women adopting circular migration for fishing. Migration can lead to positive outcomes, such as female empowerment through remittances, but also negatively impacts women left behind, increasing their workload and leading to female-headed households in certain regions.

3.5 Sensitivity analysis - Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words  

1. Key finding

Overall
Gendered dynamics in Conservation Agriculture adoption in SSA reveal mixed outcomes, with women facing increased labor burdens, limited decision-making power, and barriers to resources

Women and girls-related
Women in SSA face significant barriers to adopting Conservation Agriculture, including limited decision-making power, unequal access to resources, and increased labor demands, despite some improvements in food security and agency.

2. Short summary

The adoption of Conservation Agriculture (CA) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is shaped by factors like resource access, land size, and household dynamics, with male-headed and wealthier households more likely to adopt CA. While CA improved women's food security, crop yields, and agency in some contexts, it also led to disempowerment as men commercialized traditionally women-managed crops. Labor demands shifted to women and children, intensifying workloads despite reduced weeding through herbicides. Environmental practices were gendered, with competing demands for crop residues leading to deforestation. Barriers for women included limited decision-making power, lack of inputs, cultural restrictions, and insecure land tenure, often resulting in dis-adoption or modified practices.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Concept: Interplay of gender and Conservation Agriculture

Context: Sub-saharan Africa

3.2 Risk of bias - Not assessed

3.3 Publication bias - Not assessed

3.4 Findings 

The adoption of CA in SSA is influenced by factors such as land size, access to resources, finances, and inputs, with commercial farmers adopting CA more readily due to cost-reduction and profit-maximization benefits. Male-headed households were more likely to adopt CA than female-headed households, owing to better access to resources. Intra-household decision-making dynamics also played a role, with men typically making adoption decisions. But the presence of more women in the household increased the likelihood of adoption as women’s labor often counted as free labour.

The impact of CA on incomes and food security for men and women in Sub-Saharan Africa is mixed. In Zambia and Zimbabwe, CA improved women's food security, dietary diversity, and crop yields. However, it also led to disempowerment, as men often took over women’s crops for commercial gains, sometimes neglecting household food needs. CA practices like herbicide use and discouraging intercropping reduced the availability of traditional vegetables and food variety, compromising women's roles in ensuring food security and increasing their labour time in finding alternative foods. In some cases, these challenges caused women to revert to conventional farming. The adoption of CA did enhance women's agency, transforming traditional gender roles by increasing their involvement in crop management and decision-making, particularly in female-headed households.

CA had mixed impacts on labor demands, reducing some tasks like weeding through herbicide use while increasing others, such as digging planting basins. While CA allowed women to spread workloads over time and facilitated timely planting, it also intensified their labor, especially in land preparation using heavy tools. The shift of responsibilities to women and children often increased their workloads, with poor households disproportionately affected, while mechanization and herbicide use reduced income opportunities for manual laborers.

The environmental impacts of CA were influenced by gender dynamics. Competing household demands for crop residues led to environmentally harmful practices like deforestation, especially among poor women. While intercropping cereals and legumes could improve soil health, cultural norms assigning cereals as men’s crops and legumes as women’s crops often discouraged women from adopting CA, as it risked them losing control over their crops and jeopardizing their food security.

Women face significant barriers to adopting CA in SSA, including limited decision-making power, unequal access to farm inputs, labor-intensive tasks, and time constraints. Additional challenges include lack of secure land tenure, inadequate extension services, low literacy levels, and cultural restrictions. These factors often lead to dis-adoption or modifications of CA practices, especially when labor demands outweigh perceived benefits or when crop residue is diverted to other needs.

3.5 Sensitivity analysis - Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words