How are women adapting traditional water management techniques, such as rainwater harvesting or irrigation practices, to address water scarcity caused by climate variability?

1. Key finding

Overall/Women and girls-related
Women are pivotal custodians of traditional agro-ecological knowledge (TAeK, driving climate resilience and agrobiodiversity conservation through practices like seed preservation, food security initiatives, and resource management, despite facing systemic barriers rooted in gendered norms and unequal access to land, water, and decision-making.

2. Short summary
The review highlights the critical role of gender in shaping traditional agro-ecological knowledge (TAeK) across diverse systems. Women play a vital role in subsistence farming, seed preservation, and food conservation, ensuring food security and agrobiodiversity conservation. In contrast, men often handle heavy labor, irrigation, and ethnoveterinary tasks. Regional differences exist; for instance, South Asian women excel in seed preservation, while men dominate infrastructure-related activities. Similarly, women in forestry gather edible and medicinal plants, while men manage tree species for fodder and construction.

Gendered inequities often restrict women’s access to land, seeds, forests, and water, marginalizing their contributions and limiting autonomy. Despite these barriers, women rely on informal networks to share knowledge, sustain TAeK, and address biodiversity loss and climate variability through strategies like soil conservation, crop protection, and wild plant gathering during food scarcity. Gendered divisions of labor in agroforestry, cropping, and home gardening further burden women, limiting their decision-making power while increasing domestic responsibilities. Yet, they remain crucial custodians of TAeK, particularly in seed conservation, medicinal plants, and food preservation. The review emphasises the importance of equitable access to resources to harness women’s knowledge for sustainable, climate-resilient agricultural practices.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Concept: Gendered exploration of TAeK in agri-food systems and traditional agricultural knowledge

Context: No specific region

3.2 Risk of bias - Not assessed

3.3 Publication bias - Not assessed

3.4 Findings 

The review addresses gender as a critical factor influencing traditional agro-ecological knowledge (TAeK) across diverse agroecosystems. It underscores the necessity of exploring gendered differences in TAeK related to production, transformation, and conservation of resources, emphasizing how men’s and women’s daily experiences shape and sustain this knowledge. Women are primarily associated with gathering practices, which are often linked to subsistence farming and fulfilling family needs, whereas men tend to focus on gathering construction and fodder resources in distant locations. Both genders possess TAeK regarding plant characteristics, harvesting periods, and uses for culinary, medicinal, and ethnoveterinary purposes, but their expertise often differs by age, location, and societal roles.

In livestock management, gendered roles vary across regions. In East Africa, women focus on caring for smaller animals and milk processing, whereas men in West Africa are more knowledgeable about livestock. In Europe and Asia, studies highlight women’s involvement in feeding, milking, and administering medication, contrasting with men’s focus on transhumance and ethnoveterinary practices.

Gendered patterns in TAeK are evident in genetic resource conservation, cultivation methods, and small-scale farming. For instance, South Asian women play a significant role in seed collection and preservation, while men are more involved in irrigation and infrastructure. Women’s contributions to food sovereignty are notable in indigenous crop cultivation and home gardening, as observed in South Africa and West Africa, where they ensure food availability and household income.

Forestry-related TAeK also displays gender-based distinctions. In Asia, Africa, and the Americas, women often engage in gathering wild edible plants and medicinal resources, while men’s activities are more oriented toward managing specific tree species and their uses. Such practices contribute to health sovereignty and the sustainable use of forest resources, underscoring the complementary nature of gendered TAeK.

The review also explores gendered disparities in access to land, seeds, forests, and water, highlighting how patriarchal systems and customary laws often privilege men. Women face significant barriers, such as restricted land rights, limited participation in decision-making, and exclusion from seed and water resource management, which curtail their ability to utilize their traditional agro-ecological knowledge (TAeK). Although women often excel in seed conservation and crop management, societal norms and unequal resource control marginalize their contributions, particularly in regions like South Asia and West Africa. These inequities reinforce gender roles, limiting women's autonomy and compounding their workload in agricultural and domestic spheres.

Informal networks among women play a vital role in sustaining TAeK, which is crucial for adapting to climate change and conserving agrobiodiversity. Gendered divisions of labor are evident in agroforestry, cropping, and homegardening systems, where women typically handle tasks like seed conservation, weeding, and home gardeing, while men undertake heavier tasks such as land clearing and pruning. Women are key custodians of knowledge in areas like food conservation, seed preservation, and medicinal plant use, contributing significantly to family sustenance and agroecological resilience. However, sociocultural norms often restrict their roles, with men dominating tasks related to forage conservation, veterinary practices, and heavy labor. These disparities highlight the interplay between gendered labor divisions and knowledge systems, emphasizing the need for equitable resource access to harness the full potential of women’s knowledge in building climate-resilient and sustainable agroecosystems. Women adopt strategies like soil conservation, crop protection, and wild plant gathering to address biodiversity loss and food scarcity. They rely on informal networks and institutions to preserve and transfer knowledge across generations, while men's involvement is limited in some contexts, such as agropastoral systems in Europe 

3.5 Sensitivity analysis - Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words

1. Key finding

Overall
Women in rural and agrarian communities adapt to climate change through diverse strategies such as livelihood diversification, altered crop practices, reliance on microcredit, migration, indigenous knowledge use, and income generation through trade and livestock rearing. However, systemic gender barriers limit their access to resources, impacting their resilience and adaptation effectiveness.

2. Short summary

Women in rural and agrarian communities employ diverse strategies to adapt to climate change impacts. In India, Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Mali, women turn to alternative livelihoods like making handicrafts, engaging in petty trade, livestock rearing, and forest-based activities when traditional agriculture becomes unsustainable due to environmental stressors. For instance, women in Bangladesh took up soil-cutting for income after Cyclone Aila, and Vietnamese women increasingly engage in waged labor due to water scarcity. In places where male migration shifts family roles, women assume greater adaptation responsibilities despite facing limited access to land, credit, and resources.

Women’s access to financial resources, often restricted, drives reliance on loans, microcredit, and savings to fund adaptation efforts, while education and training enhance adaptation abilities, especially where women receive support from NGOs. Local ecological knowledge is also critical; women in the Fijian Islands and Torres Strait use indigenous knowledge to manage food security and predict weather. Across regions, women reduce their own consumption to prioritize family needs in times of food scarcity, and they leverage diverse adaptation methods to support household resilience despite significant barriers posed by gender norms and financial limitations.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

PCC: Population/concept/context framework

Population - women, 

Concept - adaptation strategies in response to climate-related disasters 

Context - no specific zone

3.2 Risk of bias - Not assessed 

3.3 Publication bias - Not assessed

3.4 Findings 

The review identifies a number of adaptation strategies taken up by women in the context of climate change, especially in rural and agrarian settings. These include:

Income source diversification: In India’s Katper village, women make rope from cotton waste due to declining incomes from fishing and gardening caused by climate change. After Cyclone Aila in 2009, Bangladeshi women in Khulna turned to soil-cutting for income. In Vietnam and Mali, women shifted to livestock raising and firewood collection as water scarcity hampers farming, while worsening droughts in Mali have led women to adopt forest-based livelihoods. Male migration has also prompted women to pursue off-farm income.

Livelihood diversification: In Bangladesh, women diversify their livelihoods by cultivating varied crops, albeit with lower adoption rates than men due to societal barriers. Vietnamese women often shift to waged labor instead of agriculture. In Nepal, decreased crop production due to warming leads women to rely on day labor. In northeastern Nigeria, both men and women adopt off-farm activities to manage food security amid drought. In India, coastal flooding in Gujarat and annual storms push women to shift away from traditional livelihoods like fishing, while in Uttarakhand and Mali, they take up wage labor and forest-based livelihoods to adapt 

Altered cultivation/crop management/crop diversification: In agrarian societies, adaptation is vital, though gender norms limit women's roles in agricultural adaptation. While men control agricultural output, some societies allow or require limited female participation. Female-headed households employ adaptive strategies, like flood-resistant rice in India, drought-resistant crops in Nepal, and charcoal production in Mali. Nigerian women adopt intercropping and crop rotation at lower rates than men, while Bangladeshi women use salt-tolerant and mangrove farming, mixed cropping, and floating gardens for flood resilience. Vietnamese women adapt with drought-resistant rice, irrigation adjustments, and modified planting times to address water scarcity.

Personal loan/Microcredit/Borrowing money: Climate change adaptation is costly, and women, with fewer resources than men, face financial barriers that limit effective adaptation. Women often rely on microcredit, loans, or intermediaries. In Bangladesh, women leverage NGO loans for family support, while female-headed Nigerian households access agricultural loans. In Vietnam, women secure low-interest loans or start small businesses to offset declining rice yields. In Gujarat, India, women transitioned from farming to lobster rearing, funded by loans after a climate event.

Saving money and Property selling: During crises, women’s property is often sold before men’s, and their limited capacity to save reduces their coping ability. In Bangladesh, women in char areas engage in diverse income-generating activities to build savings, which supports family adaptation during events like floods (Naz et al.). Similarly, rural Vietnamese women prioritize saving in advance to prepare for climate-related challenges.

Migration: In regions like Uttarakhand, Gujarat, and coastal Bangladesh, male outmigration grants women greater decision-making power over adaptation and income diversification despite lacking land ownership. However, they face challenges in accessing irrigation water, credit, labor, and handling increased workloads. In water-scarce Vietnam, women, especially those with lower education, turn to local or seasonal wage labor during dry periods. In drought-prone Nigeria, female-headed households often migrate or send children for off-farm work to reduce consumption pressures.

Education/Training: In Bangladesh, flood-affected rural women receive NGO training to diversify livelihoods, while urban women emphasize children’s education as a preventive measure. In drought-prone regions of India, organizations provide training to help women adapt to climate impacts. Education level significantly influences households’ adaptation capabilities by enhancing analytical skills for resilience strategies. Women in Mali prioritize education as a long-term strategy, aiming for their children to secure paid work and reduce dependence on natural resources.

Use of local indigenous knowledge: Women’s reliance on natural resources and ecological knowledge strengthens their role in climate adaptation. Their expertise enables them to gather and disseminate ecosystem information crucial for resilience. In the Fijian islands, intergenerational knowledge sharing from past disasters informs future adaptation strategies. In the Torres Strait Islands, women, known as "aunties," use local materials and predict weather patterns to enhance food security and self-sufficiency. Similarly, women in Bangladesh employ indigenous knowledge for climate hazard management, while women in Uttarakhand, India, utilize natural indicators to predict weather events, safeguarding family food security.

Petty trade, livestock rearing, home-made product selling: Women in regions like Uttarakhand, Gujarat, and Bangladesh adapt to climate stresses by engaging in handicrafts, trade, and livestock rearing for income and family nutrition. In food-scarce rural areas, women often reduce their own consumption to prioritize family needs. Here, staying hungry becomes a way of adapting to climate stresses. 

3.5 Sensitivity analysis - Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words 

1. Key finding

Overall
This review examined the effectiveness of interventions promoting CSA to enhance farmers' knowledge of the benefits of CSA approaches, subsequent adoption of CSA, and disadoption of harmful agricultural practices in low‐ and middle‐income countries. Eight impact evaluations were found (two randomized controlled trials) evaluating the effects of CSA practices on farmer's knowledge gains of the benefits of CSA practices and subsequent adoption. Knowledge dissemination approaches such as Farmer Field Schools and weather and climate information services were found to positively impact farmers' knowledge and adoption of specific CSA practices. There was no effects on the disadoption of harmful practices such as pesticide overuse.

Women and girls-related
Gender emerged as a nuanced factor in the adoption of CSA practices. While both men and women benefited from knowledge dissemination, marginal differences were observed. Women farmers exhibited slightly higher adoption rates, emphasizing the need for gender‐ specific tailoring of interventions.

2. Short summary
The review assessed the effectiveness of interventions promoting climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in low- and middle-income countries, focusing on knowledge dissemination, financial support, and institutional arrangements to enhance farmers’ understanding and adoption of CSA while reducing harmful practices. Four studies explored the role of farmer field schools and similar models in improving awareness and adoption of CSA, with one using participatory action research and awareness campaigns that led to trial adoption of water-saving technologies. Two studies using video-assisted learning on botanical pesticides and climate-resilient rice seeds showed increased knowledge and adoption. One intervention incorporated a gender-focused approach by ensuring equal participation of women in training. Another study found that access to weather and climate information significantly improved adoption of water management and multiple cropping practices. Overall, knowledge dissemination strategies were effective in raising awareness and encouraging the adoption of CSA practices.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Eligible participants were women and men farmers engaged in agriculture and natural resource management in LMICs, as defined by the World Bank categorization.

Types of intervention were 

• Knowledge dissemination and capacity‐building approaches such as Farmer's Field Schools or their modification, social networking and peer learning, information and communication technologies, group and individual training and demonstration, and agriculture extension services. 
• Financial approaches, including credit and subsidies such as cash transfers, vouchers, matching grants, and crop insurance. 
• Institutional arrangements such as collectivization (e.g. farmer cooperatives and federations)

Comparators included business‐as‐usual access to conventional agricultural services, including no access or promotion of non‐climate smart approaches, different interventions promoting CSA, or interventions with different intensities.

This review included three key outcomes related to CSA: knowledge and awareness about appropriate CSA approaches, adoption of proper CSA practices, and disadoption of harmful practices, agriculture outcomes (e.g., yield), and social outcomes (e.g., time use).

Study design: Eligible studies included those in which the authors used a control or comparison group. 

• Randomized or Quasi‐Random Assignment: Eligible studies should have had participants randomly or quasi‐randomly assigned to different intervention groups.
• Non‐Random Assignment with Matching or Statistical Control: If random assignment was not feasible, studies could still be eligible if participants were assigned non‐randomly but matched by relevant characteristics. Alternatively, statistical methods (such as propensity score matching) could be used to control for differences between groups. 
• Before‐After Studies: Controlled before‐after studies (with a pre‐ intervention and post‐intervention assessment) were eligible. 
• Combinations of Approaches: Eligible studies could use combinations of the above approaches. Examples included pair‐matched randomization, randomized encouragement using instrumental variables, fuzzy regression discontinuity using instrumental variables, or propensity score‐weighted difference‐in‐differences.

3.2 Risk of bias  

For randomized and non‐randomized studies, the potential risk of bias in the included studies was assessed using a tool adapted from Waddington et al. (2012) and Stewart et al. (2014), which articulates bias domains around confounding, selection bias, departures from intended interventions, and bias in measurement, and reporting bias. Risk of bias ratings were assigned for each of the seven domains, varying from low to moderate to high.

3.3 Publication bias 

The modesty of sample sizes precluded a definitive confirmation of publication bias. Moreover, the analysis of disadoption of outcomes was based on a mere two studies, thus precluding a robust assessment of publication bias for this particular measure.

3.4 Findings 

The studies reviewed promoted a wide range of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices, including integrated pest management (IPM), climate-resilient crop varieties like stress-tolerant rice (STRV), soil fertility management, water conservation, and mitigation strategies. These practices were encouraged through interventions such as quality seed production training (QSP), weather and climate information services (including forecasts, call centers, and market advisories), farmer field schools, and video-based learning. Fertilizer and pesticide use, multiple cropping, and water management practices like irrigation, micro-irrigation, and water harvesting were also supported through these promotional tools. The studies evaluated outcomes across seven key areas: knowledge (e.g., pest management, pesticide use, and adoption of STRVs), attitudes toward beneficial practices, disadoption of harmful practices (e.g., reduced pesticide spraying), adoption of CSA practices and safe input use, improved farm management, labor and time use (including women’s labor share), and crop yield measured in kilograms per hectare.

3.5 Sensitivity analysis - Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words