What social, economic, or cultural barriers are hindering women farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change, and how are they overcoming these obstacles?

1. Key finding

Overall
Perceptions of climate change, adaptation strategies, access to resources, and social networks for effective adaptation are distinctly shaped by gender, with men and women exhibiting differentiated roles, resources, and support systems that influence their adaptive capacities and responses to climate impacts. 

Women and girls-related
Gender roles significantly shape adaptation strategies in agriculture, with men typically engaging in labor-intensive and resource-focused activities, while women prioritize less labor-demanding tasks and household food security, reflecting distinct responsibilities in response to climate challenges. Women face restricted access to productive resources, limiting their adoption of technical climate adaptation strategies and often confining them to managerial roles, while men tend to dominate resource-intensive activities due to cultural norms and differential resource ownership. Women face restricted access to productive resources, limiting their adoption of technical climate adaptation strategies and often confining them to managerial roles, while men tend to dominate resource-intensive activities due to cultural norms and differential resource ownership.

2. Short summary

Research reveals mixed evidence regarding gendered perceptions of climate change. While men and women share similar views, women often report greater concern, especially over specific threats like crop losses and saltwater intrusion. This heightened concern may stem from a more fatalistic outlook on climate, possibly due to limited access to information. Gender roles critically shape these perceptions; for example, women in Uganda focus on issues impacting fuel and water due to their domestic roles, while men emphasize soil fertility and livestock health.

Adaptation strategies also differ by gender. Women, restricted by unequal access to resources, tend to adopt managerial adaptations like crop rotation, while men typically engage in structural changes like flood prevention. Financial and technical adaptations vary; women in Bangladesh rely on savings or loans for small businesses, while men in Ghana often sell assets. The findings emphasize that women often face adaptation barriers due to poverty and limited capital. Gender roles and associated socioeconomic factors distinctly shape climate resilience. Women often rely more on localized, food security-focused social networks, while men access broader, crop-oriented institutional networks, with cultural practices further restricting women’s social connectivity and network access.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Population: Women

Concept: gender disaggregated perception and/or adaptation to cli-mate change in agriculture

Context: No specific region

3.2 Risk of bias - Not assessed  

3.3 Publication bias - Not assessed

3.4 Findings 

Evidence on gendered perceptions of climate change is mixed. Some studies suggest men and women share similar views, while others indicate women show slightly higher concern and greater sensitivity to temperature changes. Many studies note that women, often with limited climate information, are more fatalistic about climate change, sometimes viewing it as divine will. In China, women attribute climate change to human actions, whereas in Ghana, Malawi, and Bangladesh, both genders frequently cite deforestation and overpopulation. Female farmers generally express greater concerns over crop losses, reduced productivity, and environmental threats, while men more frequently report flood occurrences, with women focusing on flood impacts and prevention.

Gender roles significantly shape perceptions of climate change, leading men and women to experience and interpret impacts differently. For example, in India, men typically observe effects on activities they manage, like hunting and livestock health, while women are more attuned to changes affecting forest food plants, medicinal plants, and horticulture due to their responsibilities in these areas. In Ghana, women perceive reductions in food production more than men because of their role in securing food supplies. Similarly, in Uganda, women note prolonged droughts, saline water, and wetland changes for fuel cultivation, while men focus on soil fertility decline. These differences suggest that specific gender roles within communities lead to distinct climate change perceptions, even among people living in the same area. Climate change perception among farmers also varies by age, social status, and ethnicity, influencing adaptation behaviors. Older and poorer farmers in India and Mexico are more certain about climate impacts, while concerns about climate change strongly drive adaptation efforts, especially among women.

Some of the climate change adaptation strategies adopted and variation by gender:

Technical adaptation The adoption of improved crop varieties and livestock breeds varies by gender and location, with women favoring fast-maturing crops and men often prioritizing drought-resistant varieties. Gendered differences also affect adoption rates, with women in Bangladesh adopting diverse agriculture more than men, whereas men in Ghana lead in diversification efforts.

Financial adaptation: In response to climate change, men in Ghana and Kenya typically sell assets like livestock to cope with drought, while women rely more on borrowing or savings. Asset sale strategies also vary by climate impact and gender, with male-headed households selling assets during drought and female-headed households amid pest infestations. Women in Bangladesh and Malawi frequently join savings schemes and take loans for small businesses, whereas in India, more men take loans, borrow from neighbors, and use savings for adaptation.

Structural Adaptation: Structural adaptation strategies typically fall to men, such as flood prevention and drainage, while women often adopt water harvesting, pen reinforcement, and fire control measures, sometimes increasing their labor, as seen in Sudan.

Managerial Adaptation: Farmers, regardless of gender, widely adopt managerial adaptation strategies, with variations by gender; women in Tanzania focus on cropping and fertilization, men on conservation and feed improvement, and in Ghana, men prioritize fish farming, while women emphasize seasonal forecasting and post-harvest tech.

Socio-cultural adaptation: Key socio-cultural adaptation strategies include changes in food habits, gender roles, farming systems, and education. In Ghana and Eritrea, women reduced meal size and used wild plants during drought, while in Mali, women took on livestock rearing as men shifted to migration or sharecropping due to climate challenges.

Livelihood Adaptation: Farmers adapt to climate change by diversifying income through non-farm activities, with gender differences in preferred strategies. In Malawi, men leaned towards fisheries and agriculture-related activities, while women engaged more in petty businesses. Additionally, men in some regions pursued exclusive livelihoods like fishing or carpentry, while women focused on small-scale businesses, labor, and forest-based livelihoods.

Migration as adaptation: Migration as an adaptation strategy to climate change is primarily undertaken by men, though women also migrate for non-farm work, with some regions seeing higher female migration. Seasonal migration patterns vary, with men shifting pastures during droughts and women adopting circular migration for fishing. Migration can lead to positive outcomes, such as female empowerment through remittances, but also negatively impacts women left behind, increasing their workload and leading to female-headed households in certain regions.

3.5 Sensitivity analysis - Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words 

1. Key finding

Overall
Smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa are highly aware of climate change impacts and employ diverse adaptation strategies—such as crop diversification and water conservation—yet face significant barriers, including limited access to financial resources, information, and institutional support, with adaptation often influenced by gender.

Women and girls-related
Though the paper does not discuss the reason for this, it notes that male and female-led households adapt differently to climate change. In some contexts female-headed households often face greater obstacles in adapting to climate change. This could be due to limited access to financial resources, credit, extension services, and property rights. However, in some contexts, female-headed households are noted to adapt more proactively. 

2. Short summary

The paper reviews how smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa perceive, experience, and adapt to climate change. It finds that climate change—through altered temperatures and precipitation—negatively impacts livelihoods dependent on agriculture, heightening food insecurity, economic instability, poverty, and shortage of natural resources. Adaptation strategies vary but include crop diversification, adjusting planting times, adopting water and soil conservation practices, and engaging in non-farm income activities. 

Adaptation strategies to climate change among farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa are shaped by various factors including demographics (gender, age, education, farming experience, household size), economic resources (such as income and access to credit), and institutional support (like access to agricultural extension services and climate data). Male and female-headed households often adopt different strategies, influenced by varying access to resources and institutional support. Male-headed households generally adapt more readily, often having better access to credit, land, and information. However, some studies suggest that female-headed households may be more proactive in adapting. Key barriers to effective climate adaptation include limited access to financial resources, inadequate information on climate change, unreliable seasonal forecasts, insufficient land, weak institutional support, and inadequate government policy on climate adaptation.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Population: smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa 

Concept: farmers’ perceptions of climate change, its adverse effects on farmers’ livelihood and adaptation strategies

Context: Sub-Saharan Africa

3.2 Risk of bias - Not assessed

3.3 Publication bias - Not assessed

3.4 Findings 

This review discusses how smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) perceive, experience, and adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Farmers' Perception of Climate Change: Farmers in developing countries, having long adapted to climate changes, provide valuable insights into its impact on agriculture. Studies across Africa reveal a common perception: rising temperatures and altered rainfall patterns. Farmers in South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal report warmer climates, reduced rainfall, delayed rainy seasons, and frequent droughts, which increase water demands and disrupt planting cycles. Observations also include heightened evapotranspiration, shorter cold seasons, and more extreme weather events like violent rains and hail. 

Access to extension services, which offer climate information, increases farmers’ awareness of climate shifts, encouraging proactive responses. Wealth indicators—such as farm and non-farm income, and livestock ownership—also enhance perception. More experienced farmers are likely to detect climate changes as they update beliefs based on long-term observations. Other factors, such as the sex of the household head, proximity to markets, extension service contact, agro-ecological zone, etc., were found to significantly influence farmers’ climate awareness.

Impacts on Agriculture and Livelihoods: Climate change significantly threatens agriculture, particularly for smallholder farmers who depend on consistent weather patterns. Declining crop yields, soil degradation, water scarcity, and increased pests and diseases are major impacts reported. Reduced yields not only affect food security but also lead to economic losses, as smallholder farmers rely on agriculture for income. The review highlights that these impacts have far-reaching implications, potentially exacerbating poverty and vulnerability among farming communities in SSA.

Adaptation Strategies Employed by Farmers: Farmers have adopted various strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. Adaptations generally include switching to crops with lower water requirements in areas with reduced precipitation, while farmers in flood-prone regions opt for short-duration crops and adjust planting and harvesting schedules to avoid peak rainfall. Across the region, farmers diversify crops, shift planting dates to align with rainfall patterns, incorporate tree crops, engage in mixed cropping, and supplement income with off-farm activities. In water-scarce areas of southern and eastern Africa, farmers employ water conservation practices such as water harvesting, wastewater reuse, and irrigation. Meanwhile, West African farmers adapt to short, intense rainy seasons with short-duration crops and upland farming techniques. Livestock farmers in drier areas adapt by digging boreholes, switching to drought-resistant livestock, reducing herd sizes during droughts, and supplementing income with non-farming activities.

Challenges to Adaptation: The review identifies a range of demographic and institutional factors influencing farmers’ adaptation to climate change, with variations by region and over time. Key factors include gender, age, household size, farming experience, and education, alongside institutional supports like credit, extension services, information access, and non-farm income.

Large households often adopt labor-intensive adaptations, while more educated and experienced farmers are better informed about agronomic options for climate resilience. Access to credit and extension services significantly boosts adaptation, though limited financial resources remain a key barrier. Market proximity, climate information, and farmer-to-farmer extension further support adaptation by increasing awareness and access to diverse strategies, including soil conservation, crop diversification, and irrigation.

Gender also plays a role, with mixed findings: some studies show male-headed households adapt more, while others find female-headed households are more adaptive. 

Key barriers to adaptation include limited access to early warning information, unreliable seasonal forecasts, insufficient cropland, lack of water and credit, high adaptation costs, insecure property rights, and restricted access to inputs. Additional studies highlight factors such as information asymmetry, irregular extension services, government inattention to climate issues, limited access to improved seeds, ineffectiveness of traditional methods, lack of subsidies, low institutional capacity, and the absence of a clear government policy on climate adaptation as major obstacles.

3.5 Sensitivity analysis - Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words