To what extent do policy frameworks and government interventions, such as social safety nets, disaster risk reduction programs, and land tenure reforms, support the adaptive capacity of at-risk communities?

1. Key finding

Overall

This review looks at the adaptation practice of climate change focusing on agroecology, agroforestry, and cooperative organizations.

2. Short summary 

The review sheds light on the way that cooperative organizations will improve the social and economic results by aggregating resources and sharing knowledge to enhance their adaptive capacity. The importance of justice and equity for adaptation is the central point: diverse representation, fair benefits distribution, and empowerment during decision-making. It identifies gaps in adaptation practices particularly related to equity and the systemic factors that contribute to vulnerability.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Population: Smallholder farmers in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the communities associated with cooperative organizations, agroecology, and agroforestry.

Intervention: This review concerns adaptation strategies on climate change, namely agroecology, agroforestry, and cooperative organizations. Practices associated with these include resource sharing, collective action, and sustainable farming techniques.

Outcome:  The following outcomes were assessed: social; economic; and environmental benefits, as well as improvements in adaptive capacity, increased resource access, improved income diversity, and better soils. 

Study design: A systematic review of 94 articles including qualitative and quantitative data.

3.2 Risk of bias Not assessed 

3.3 Publication bias Not mentioned

3.4 Findings 

This article reviews the effectiveness of various climate change adaptation practices, specifically focusing on agroecology, agroforestry techniques, and the development of cooperative organizations. Research shows that these practices often lead to positive outcomes across multiple indicator categories, including social, economic, and environmental factors. For example, in Uganda and Kenya, farmer cooperatives improved adaptive capacity by enhancing collective action, resource access, and knowledge sharing among members. These cooperatives helped farmers by pooling resources for seeds and fertilizers and providing labor-sharing during intensive seasons.

The review also explores the role of agroecological and agroforestry techniques, which have been effective in improving soil quality, reducing pest outbreaks, and diversifying income sources. A case study in the Philippines highlighted how rubber-based agroforestry systems led to increased latex yields and more resilient ecosystems.

In terms of justice and equity, the article identifies the importance of fair distribution of benefits, equitable decision-making, and inclusive representation in adaptation processes. While the review shows that many cases address equity, it points out the lack of comprehensive evidence in adaptation literature, with only about 12% of studies providing detailed information on justice or equity aspects. The article calls for greater attention to addressing power imbalances and ensuring that adaptation strategies are inclusive of all affected groups.

The article concludes that while adaptation efforts are underway, there are gaps in addressing root causes of vulnerabilities and ensuring that adaptation practices are just and equitable. It stresses that the effectiveness of these practices should be measured in context, considering local needs, cultures, and conditions. The review calls for flexible, context-specific metrics to assess adaptation effectiveness and to ensure that justice and equity are central to these processes.

3.5 Sensitivity analysis Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words

1. Key finding

Overall
The paper calls for further depth in understanding socio-economic and psychological factors influencing adoption and proposes location-specific interventions to increase the effectiveness of agricultural technology adoption thereby increasing productivity and food security.

2. Short summary
This paper undertakes a meta-analysis to examine the factors influencing adoption of environmentally-friendly agricultural technologies by Chinese farmers. Main findings include the variability of adoption factors across regions and studies, age, off-farm income, and land fragmentation negatively affecting adoption, while land transfer positively relates to adoption. This study also points out that more and more factors are losing their impact over time, meaning new factors ought to be explored. Policy recommendations include adopting context-specific approaches, promoting land consolidation, and differentiating support for various types of farmers to enhance technology adoption and better food security.

3. Long summary

3.1 PICOS 

Population: Farmers in China (smallholder, large-scale, varied socio-economic backgrounds).

Intervention: Pro-environmental agricultural technologies (e.g., sustainable farming practices, resource-conserving technologies).

Comparison: Comparison of factors influencing adoption (e.g., socio-economic vs. psychological factors, differences by region or time).

Outcomes: Adoption of PEATs (measured through adoption rates, intention to adopt, or behavioral changes).

Study design: Meta-analysis of empirical studies (surveys, longitudinal studies, experimental research, etc.)

3.2 Risk of bias Not assessed

Study selection bias

The databases searched in both Chinese and English were only included, and studies conducted in countries not as listed above were excluded. The regional and linguistic selection could cause geographic bias and language bias as studies from non-English and non-Chinese speaking regions or studies not published in the former languages were excluded, which may limit the generalizability of the findings.

3.3 Publication bias Egger's test

3.4 Findings

Key findings:
The adoption of precision environmental agricultural technologies (PEATs) in China is influenced by a complex interplay of socio-demographic, structural, and psychological factors. Variables such as age, off-farm income ratio, land fragmentation, and number of plots negatively affect adoption, as they reduce farmers’ willingness or capacity to engage with new technologies. In contrast, land transfer—driven by a growing land lease market—emerges as a strong positive factor, particularly for small-scale farmers, as it allows for production scale expansion and greater openness to innovation. Social influences, especially the role of village cadres and access to information, consistently support adoption across regions and time periods. However, regional and temporal variability in factors like household size, education, and farm income highlights the need for adaptive, context-specific analysis. Gender patterns also vary, with men leading adoption in China, but women doing so in parts of Europe and North America. The wide heterogeneity in study findings—driven by regional conditions, funding, and methodologies—underscores the need for localized policy responses. Key policy recommendations include promoting land rental markets and consolidation to support smallholders, tailoring extension services to different farm sizes, and enhancing information access and training in rural areas. Overall, effective adoption of PEATs requires policies aligned with farmers’ diverse socio-economic contexts, and further research should explore how technology traits interact with farmer profiles to guide more nuanced, targeted interventions.

3.5 Sensitivity analysis Not assessed

4. AMSTAR 2 assessment of the review

5. Count of references to the following words